Research & Evidence

How we evaluate evidence

For every claim, we ask three questions: which species was studied, what kind of study it was, and whether the finding has been repeated. Reviews and controlled studies carry more weight than single small or laboratory studies.

Canine evidence vs other species

Much of what is known about carnosine comes from human, horse and laboratory research. We use it to explain general physiology, but we label it clearly and never present it as proof of an effect in dogs. Where dog-specific research is limited, we say so.

Read our editorial policy

Evidence-level legend

Established physiology

Well-supported principles of mammalian biology, such as how ATP powers contraction.

Canine research

Studies conducted in dogs — the most directly relevant evidence, but often limited.

Other-species evidence

Findings from humans, horses or laboratory models. Context only, never proof for dogs.

Emerging evidence

Early or limited findings that have not yet been confirmed.

Expert interpretation

Reasoned editorial interpretation where direct evidence is lacking.